English Constitution Essay Example for Free

English Constitution Essay The role of the courts and government in judicial review is to ensure that Public authorities act lawfully; all such authorities are subject to the rule of law and are not permitted to act ‘ultra vires’ (beyond their powers). The power that government has comes from powers granted to that authority by statute or delegated legislation. The Human Rights Act 1988 (HRA) created an additional ground s6(1) making it unlawful for public bodies to act in Ð ° way that is incompatible with the European Convention on Human Rights. (ECHR)Since the seventeenth century, in the Case of Monopolies 1602 77 ER 1260 the courts have claimed the authority to inquire into the extent and limits of the Crown’s common law prerogative powers. Since 1700, the role of the courts in reviewing administrative and judicial decisions has been explained on the basis of the rule of law whereby any Act or decision was invalid because it was in breach of or unauthorised by the law, or was beyond the scope of the power given to the decision maker by the law (Sunstein, 2001). Limitations of Judicial Review Judicial review is limited to the examination of executive decision and decision made by government authorities; it is Ð ° constitutional function of the High Court to ensure that public bodies and government do not act unlawfully. It acts not in order to give effect to any private rights of the individual who made the application but in order to fulfil the role. It is the examination of Ð ° legal decision by Ð ° public body and it is not an appeal whereby Ð ° decision maybe substituted but Ð ° review of that decision only. Judicial review is only concerned with the lawfulness and not with the merits of Ð ° decision. Attorney General v Fulham Corporation, ex relatione Yapp [1921] whereby the High Court granted Ð ° declaration that the council had acted unlawfully and Cooper v Wandsworth Board of Works (1863) 14 CB NS 180 that the council had acted unfairly and had failed to exercise their statutory power lawfully. The Primary Purpose of Judicial Review The primary purpose of judicial review was summarised by Lord Lindley MR in Roberts v Gwyrfai District Council [1899] 2 CH 608, 614: â€Å" I know of no duty of the Court which is more important to observe, and no power of the Court which is more important to enforce, than its power of keeping public bodies within their rights. The instant public and government bodies go beyond their constitutional rights they act so to damage and domination of private persons, and those individuals are allowed to be protected from harm arising from such operations of public bodies† (Sunstein, 2001 p47) In the case of Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 374 (GCHQ Case), Lord Diplock observed that: â€Å"The theme of every judicial review is Ð ° judgment made by some person or government body whom I shall name the ‘decision mÐ °ker’ or else Ð ° refusÐ °l by him to mÐ °ke Ð ° decision† In latest years judicial review has extended to private bodies which can be said to exercise Ð ° public function, R v City Panel of Takeover and Mergers, ex parte Datafin Ltd [1987] 2 QB 815Lord Diplock stated in the GCHQ case, that three actions that give grounds for Judicial review are illegality, irrationality and procedural impropriety (Merrill, 2001). Illegality, for example Ð ° government body misinterpreting legislation Anismimic Ltd V Foreign Compensation [1969] 2 AC 147, or acting ultra vires (acting beyond its prescribed power) AG v Fulham Corporation case, or making Ð ° judicial error of fact R v Secretary of State for Home Department, ex parte Khawaja [1984] AC 74, or unlawfully delegating power or fettering discretion Port of London Authority, ex parte Kynoch Ltd [1919] 1 KB 176 or where power is exercised by someone who does not meet the qualifications laid down in the granting of power, the act must be considered illegal, Entick v Carrington (1765) 19 ST Tr 1030 and Allingham v The Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries [1948] 1 All ER 780. In Vine v The National Dock Labour Board [1957] AC 488 Lord Somervell of Harrow said that in deciding whether there is such Ð ° power, two factors have to be considered â€Å"the nature of power and the character of the person†Irrationality, the decision of Ð ° public body is irrational if it is ‘so unreasonable that no reasonable body could have come to the decision† Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corp [1948] 1 KB 223 or ‘so outrageous in its defiance of logic or accepted moral standards that no sensible person who applied his mind to the question could have arrived at the decision’ Lord Diplock GCHQ case, Unreasonableness includes acting for improper motives, failing to take account of relevant considerations, failing to respect the requirements of natural justice and fettering discretion by adopting Ð ° rigid policy. With irrationality the courts have moved on from reviewing the procedures by which Ð ° decision has been made and testing its legality to substituting the courts own view on the merits of the decisionThe standard of reasonableness imposed by the courts is high. If the standard were too low it would mean that judicial discretion was being substituted for administrative discretion (Merrill, 2001). However, the protection of human rights has allowed the courts to use jurisdiction to employ Ð ° stricter test than in other Wednesbury cases, R v Lord Saville of Newdigate ex parte Brind (no 2) [1991] 1 All ER 720 (Merrill, 2001).

Exclusion of Data Records from Documents of Web

Exclusion of Data Records from Documents of Web ABSTRACT: Ranking is tremendously significant in information retrieval. Most information on web is unstructured text in natural languages, as well as extracting information from natural language text is extremely hard. A lot of current effort has focused on obtaining knowledge from structured information on web, especially from web tables. But most significantly, title of a top-k page frequently evidently disclose context, which makes page interpretable as well as extractable. Rather than focusing on structured data as well as ignoring context, we spotlight on context that we can recognize, and then we make use of context to interpretless controlled or approximately free-text information, and direct its extraction. We spotlight on a prosperous as well as expensive source of information on web, which we describe top-k web pages. Top-k lists contain additional significant and appealing circumstance, and are additional probable to be helpful in search, as well as previous interactive systems. Unl ike web tables, which hold a set of items, items within a top-k list is typically ranked consistent with a principle described by title of top-k page. There are quite a lot of reasons to make use of the page title to recognize a top-k page. Top-K Ranker ranks candidate set as well as picks top ranked list as top-k list by a score function which is a subjective sum of two. Keywords: Top-k page, Web pages, Unstructured text, Ranking, Information extraction. 1. INTRODUCTION: World Wide Web is an enormous and speedily mounting repository of information. There are a variety of objects embedded in statically as well as energetically made Web pages. Web services moreover are used to respond exact conjunctive queries, which require quite a lot of search on Web and unite across them, if done physically by means of a search engine. In the earlier period,  information extraction was used on minute harmonized corpora. Accordingly, conventional information extraction systems are capable to rely on weighty linguistic technology tuned to domain of attention. These systems were not intended to extent comparative to the extent of corpus or number of associations removed, while parameters were unchanging and diminutive. A lot of current effort has focused on obtaining knowledge from structured information on web, especially from web tables. Consequently, understanding context is tremendously important in information extraction. Regrettably, in the majority of cases, context is conveyed in unstructured text that machines are unable to interpret. In the majority cases, description is in natural language text which is not unswervingly machined interpretable, even though the explanation has the similar format for different items. But most significantly, title of a top-k page frequently evidently disclose context, which makes page interpretable as well as extractable. We mark top-k pages in support of information extraction for reasons such as: Top-k data on web is large as well as rich. The top-k information is moreover prosperous in terms of content obtained for every item in list. Top-k data is of high superiority and it is normally cleaner than previous forms of data on web. Most data on web is in free text, which is tough to interpret. Web tables are structured, however merely an extremely minute percentage of them enclose meaningful as well as useful information. On the contrary top-k pages contain a general style: the page title hold the numb er as well as concept of items in list. Every item is considered as an example of page title, and numeral of items has to be equal to number stated in title. 2. METHODOLOGY: Most information on web is unstructured text in natural languages, as well as extracting information from natural language text is extremely hard. Some information on web exists in controlled or else semi-structured forms. It is true that entire number of web tables is enormous in entire corpus, however only an extremely minute percentage of them hold helpful information. There are a variety of objects embedded in statically as well as energetically made Web pages. An even lesser percentage of them contain information interpretable devoid of context. Rather than focusing on structured data as well as ignoring context, we spotlight on context that we can recognize, and then we make use of context to interpretless controlled or approximately free-text information, and direct its extraction. We spotlight on a prosperous as well as expensive source of information on web, which we describe top-k web pages. the proposed system which includes components: such as Title Classifier, which effo rt to be familiar with page title of input webpage; Candidate Picker, which take out the entire prospective top-k lists from page body like candidate lists; Top-K Ranker, which score every candidate list as well as picks most excellent one; Content Processor, which post process take out list to additionally make attribute values. Atop-k web page explains k items of meticulous interest. We build up a system that takes out top-k lists from a web corpus that holds billions of pages. Top-k lists enclose rich as well as expensive information. Especially compared with web tables, top-k lists enclose a well-built quantity of data, which is of superior quality. Top-k lists contain additional significant and appealing circumstance, and are additional probable to be helpful in search, as well as previous interactive systems. Unlike web tables, which hold a set of items, items within a top-k list is typically ranked consistent with a principle described by title of top-k page. Ranking is treme ndously significant in information retrieval. Fig1: An overview of system representation. 3. EXTRACTION OF INFORMATION FROM TOP-K WEB PAGES: The block diagram shown in fig1 reveals the proposed system which includes components: such as Title Classifier, which effort to be familiar with page title of input webpage; Candidate Picker, which take out the entire prospective top-k lists from page body like candidate lists; Top-K Ranker, which score every candidate list as well as picks most excellent one; Content Processor, which post process take out list to additionally make attribute values. The top-k information is moreover prosperous in terms of content obtained for every item in list. Top-k data is of high superiority and it is normally cleaner than previous forms of data on web. The title of web page helps us recognize a top-k page. There are quite a lot of reasons to make use of the page title to recognize a top-k page. For the majority cases, page titles provide to bring in topic of the main body. While the page body may possibly have diverse as well as complex formats, top-k page title includes comparatively comparabl e structure. Title examination is lightweight and well-organized. If title examination indicates that a page is not a top-k page, we choose to pass over this page. This is significant if system has to extent towards billions of web pages. A web page by a top-k title might not contain a top-k list. Candidate Picker step take out one or additional list structures which become visible to be top-k lists from a prearranged page. A top-k candidate has to first and for mainly be a list concerning k items, visually, it have to be provided as k vertically or else horizontally aligned standard patterns. While structurally, it is obtainable as a list of HTML nodes by identical tag path which is path from root node towards a convinced tag node, which is presented as a succession of tag names. Top-K Ranker ranks candidate set as well as picks top ranked list as top-k list by a score function which is a subjective sum of two. Subsequent to getting top-k list, we take out attribute or value pairs for every item from description of item in list. 4. CONCLUSION: Web services moreover are used to respond exact conjunctive queries, which require quite a lot of search on Web and unite across them, if done physically by means of a search engine. Conventional information extraction systems are capable to rely on weighty linguistic technology tuned to domain of attention which were not intended to extent comparative to the extent of corpus or number of associations removed, while parameters were unchanging and diminutive. In the majority cases, description is in natural language text which is not unswervingly machined interpretable, even though the explanation has the similar format for different items. Web tables are structured, however merely an extremely minute percentage of them enclose meaningful as well as useful information. Some information on web exists in controlled or else semi-structured forms. It is true that entire number of web tables is enormous in entire corpus, however only an extremely minute percentage of them hold helpful info rmation. spotlight on a prosperous as well as expensive source of information on web, which we describe top-k web pages. We build up a system that takes out top-k lists from a web corpus that holds billions of pages. While the page body may possibly have diverse as well as complex formats, top-k page title includes comparatively comparable structure. Top-k lists enclose rich as well as expensive information. The top-k information is moreover prosperous in terms of content obtained for every item in list. Top-k data is of high superiority and it is normally cleaner than previous forms of data on web.

Portrayal of Women in The Good Earth :: Good Earth Essays

Portrayal of Women in The Good Earth The Good Earth focuses around the life of a Chinese peasant, Wang Lung, who struggles to overcome a poverty-stricken life. The accounts of Wang Lung's life portray traditional China. One prominent aspect of this story is how women were depicted in society. The role of women in China is woven throughout the novel. Depending on their social status, each female character within the novel gives readers a different perspective of a woman's role during this period. In addition to their roles, the author includes the trials and tribulations these women must face as well. As a whole, the importance of these female characters are based upon their contribution to the ego's of the male protagonists and as being providers of support to both family and order in society. In Pearl S. Buck's The Good Earth, women are depicted to be consistent with the authentic Chinese culture of that period. Paul A. Doyle, a literary critic, remarks that Buck's stories were improbable and simplistic (Chauhan, 1994, 120). He later adds: "In structure, The Good Earth uses a chronological form which proceeds at a fairly regular pace. Buck's stories take the epic rather than dramatic form, that is to say, they are chronological narratives of a piece of life, seen from one point of view, straightforward, without devices; they have no complex plots, formed of many strands skillfully twisted, but belong to the single-strand type, with the family, however, rather than the individual as a unit (Buck 35). As Wang Lung and his father begin this family strand, one by one characters are introduced from Wang's viewpoint. In regards to women in his society, he objectively portrays them for what they are worth. In spite of his smooth surface, the novel shows a complicated feminism. On the one hand, the woman's situation is clearly, almost gruesomely, presented: Chinese village society is pat riarchal, oppressive, and stultifying to women (Hayford, 1994, 25). The clearest illustration of this occurs through O-lan, the wife of Wang Lung. O-lan comes about in the first chapter of the novel. At the age of ten, her parents sell her off to the Great House of Hwang, where the village's wealthiest landowner resides.

Jane Austens View of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice Essay -- Austen

Jane Austen's View of Marriage in Pride and Prejudice "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want if a wife" This comment is humorous and satirical, but holds an underlying truth.   The fact that Jane Austen opens the novel with such a comment on marriage evidences the importance of the theme in the book.   Indeed the novel is all about marriage in society.   Austen lived in a time when marriage was the only way out for some women, or they would be forced to become a governess and lose their independence.   The way that this opening sentence is out provides another theme, satire.   Austen sees the following marriages that she writes on as amusing but they are still frowned upon, such as the marriage of Mr. Collins and Charlotte Lucas.   Austen sees this marriage as beneficial for both partners.   He can potter around the garden and suck up to Lady Catherine deBourgh, while Charlotte spends her time alone reading. The first marriage to be examined is that of Mr and Mrs Bennet.   This is not a marriage of love, but of vulgarity and shallow natures of both parties. Mr Bennet is of a higher class than Mrs Bennet, who is "a woman of mean understanding" contrasting Mr Bennet's "quick parts".   They have been married 23 years and at once, the Bennets realise that they have absolutely nothing in common, so they withdraw from each other.   Mr Bennet spends all day in his study retreated from Mrs Bennet and her gossip. "With a book he was regardless of time" "Mrs Bennet spends her day with tittle-tattle and idle conversation.   She is vulgar in her behaviour; the only aim for her is to get her daughters married off to someone with lots of money." Austen shows us ... ...g from the couple's opening resentment of each other - Elizabeth herself describes the "malice of Mr Darcy".   His all turns around, and we know that Darcy is the most suitable husband for Elizabeth. He is generous and intelligent, and Elizabeth is "convinced that she could have been happy with him" when she almost loses him.   In fact of course they are, and we don't need a sequel to be told that! Works Cited Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Ed. Donald Gray. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1996. Fritzer, Penelope Joan. Jane Austen and Eighteenth-Century Courtesy Books. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1997. Monaghan, David. Jane Austen Structure and Social Vision. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1980. Rubinstein, E., ed. Twentieth Century Interpretations of Pride and Prejudice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969.

Divorce in america Essay -- essays research papers fc

â€Å"It is easier to divorce my wife of 26 years than to fire someone I hired one week ago. The person I hire has more legal clout....than my wife of 26 years. That's wrong." --Judge Randall Hekman, President of the Michigan Family Forum There are, undoubtedly, a number of causes for divorce. Divorce used to be considered scandalous and immoral. This contributed to many marriages surviving despite strains. However, as divorce becomes more common, the more natural and expectable it seems. The number of divorces per year per1000 people in the U.S. has been declining since hitting our highest point in1981. (â€Å"divorce_ rate†) The United States has one of the highest divorce rates in the world. As a, couple’s relationship, marriages are more likely to be broken by divorce than death. (â€Å"rutgers.edu†) Currently 40% (â€Å"divorcereform†) of all marriages end in divorce. What are the reasons for this destruction of the American family? Some analysts attribute economic and social changes in recent decades as reasons for the rise in divorce. As World War II raged on an increasing numbers of women entered the labor force, From 1940 to 1944 over 6 million women joined the workforce filling jobs that had been exclusively male. (â€Å"chicago to go†) They never returned to being homemakers. These, Rosie the Riveter, women became less economically dependent on men and marriage for financial security. Women in unhappy marriages found that they could divorce and still support themselves. These econom...

Buddhism without Beliefs

It is a well-known fact that Buddhism religion is distinguished from all Asian religions due to its three innovative and original sifts: equal position of women; emergence of Buddhism as social transformation; replacement of monastery and building lay community â€Å"as the principal arena of Buddhist practice†. The book â€Å"Buddhism without Beliefs† by Stephen Batchelor describes the significance of three elements and their application to future development of the world. (Batchelor 1997)It is possible to suggest that the book is an intelligent effort to provide better understanding to the Buddhism religion and to make clear the attribute of â€Å"dharma practice†. Apparently, the book contains author’s personal reflections and suggestions how to apply Buddhism studies to contemporary era o skepticism. It is necessary to outline that the book contains three main parts called â€Å"Ground†, â€Å"Path†, â€Å"Fruition† and the last se ction devoted to culture and imagination. The author is rather persuasive, because he uses logical arguments, conclusions, facts and viewpoints to defend his position.Batchelor has managed to affect readers and to make them think about the issue. Therefore the book leads through abundant data presented to persuade readers that Buddhism is worth attention. Therefore, the apparent strength of the book is abundant data and evidence used to support the main idea. (Batchelor 1997) The first part of the book â€Å"Ground† involves theoretical framework of Buddhism religion and explains its core issues. The author begins with explaining differences between two entities – â€Å"dharma practice† and â€Å"religious Buddhism† – intertwined into the history of Buddhism theory.According to Batchelor those entities are closely related and thus are inseparable. Furthermore, they have to be preserved for discovering their contemporary significance. The first and the most significant entity for Batchelor is â€Å"dharma practice†, because it teaches and trains how to awaken and to feel freedom from â€Å"anguish†. The second entity â€Å"religious Buddhism† is a system of belief aims at ensuring social stability as well as providing religious consolation. (p. 16)Nevertheless, the author admits that world view and religious expression has little to do with core Buddha’s teachings, because they â€Å"pertain solely to the Asian cultural soil within which Buddhism took root†. Batchelor agrees that those entities have had significant purpose in ancient time, though they are hardly applicable to contemporary society. The author argues that if the dharma practice offers alternative approach to interpretation of core values and virtues, it has to be deprived of â€Å"its religious apparel and recast in a purely secular mode†.It would result in agnostic style of dharma practicing. (Batchelor 1997) Moreover, Batchelor believes that dharma practice would aim at social and personal freedom and liberation meaning that people have to escape from â€Å"suffering created by egocentric clinging†. According to Batchelor the positive moment of Buddhism is that the religion provides answers to great questions concerning place of humans in the â€Å"grand scheme of things†. The author seems to provide agnostic vision of the thinks stating that â€Å"the dharma is not something to believe in but something to do†.(p. 17) However, Buddha didn’t have answers to metaphysical questions of his day. The only known fact is that Buddha was teaching followers about sufferings and cessation. Thus the author makes a conclusion that Buddha’s teachings are therapeutic, existential and may be referred to liberating agnosticism. For example, Batchelor makes an attempt to escape from metaphysical questions of his day by arguing that Buddha â€Å"was merely adopting the symbols, m etaphors, and imagery of his world†. (p. 17)Nevertheless, Later Batchelor suggests that Buddha â€Å"accepted the ideas of rebirth and kamma†, though he considers them â€Å"odd that a practice concerned with anguish and the ending of anguish should be obliged to adopt ancient Indian metaphysical theories and thus accept as an article of faith that consciousness cannot be explained in terms of brain function†. (p. 37) However, Batchelor seems not to approve Buddha’s metaphysical theories, although he doesn’t completely reject the idea of reincarnation or rebirth.Instead the author thinks that honest approach has to be taken in understanding life after death, because existing knowledge isn’t enough to state anything. Buddha accepts the ideas of reincarnation and kamms indicating a â€Å"failure to summon forth the courage to risk a non-dogmatic and non-evasive stance on such crucial existential matters†. (p. 38) It is apparent that the author tends to use a variety of logical arguments to approve his interpretation of Dhamma. Batchelor’s arguments succeed in gaining cogency due to oversimplification, selective relevant citations and rationalization.For example the author discuses â€Å"four ennobling truths† and finds put that these truths aren’t â€Å"propositions to believe [but] challenges to act†. (p. 7) Nevertheless, such statement is hardly truthful, because the author fails to admit that â€Å"tasks imposed by the truths acquire their meaning from a specific context, namely, the quest for liberation from the vicious round of rebirths†. The dichotomy between â€Å"religious Buddhism† and â€Å"dharma practice† is hardly endorsable. The author calls to â€Å"recognize a spectrum of Buddhist practices, ranging from simple devotional and ethical observances to more advanced contemplative and philosophical ones†.Those observances are involved into faith and understanding, though they disappear when dharma practice is regarded on the basis of different suggestions. The author considers premises underling the traditional Buddhist practice as reincarnation and kamm, though he thinks they are only consolatory elements crept into the religion. (p. 18-19) The second part of the book is titled â€Å"Path† and aims at providing relevant sketches to agnostic conceptions based on the dharma practice. Furthermore, author provides clear and lively explanations of the issues displaying his creativity and literary gift.The part is divided into subsections devoted to awareness, overview of emptiness and development of sympathy and compassion. Apparent strength of the part is simple examples introduced in every subsection. Most original examples involve practicing awareness and mindfulness, showing essence of emptiness, challenging the findings and reflecting on common sufferings of friends, enemies and acquaintances. The second part includes also twelve links of dependent origination interpreted rather originally and illustrated by mistaken perception.(Batchelor 1997) Nevertheless, the conception of the path is absent in Batchelor’s interpretation, though it is considered the traditional foundation of Buddhist religion: â€Å"the Going for Refuge to the Three Jewels†. The author thinks that mentioning the path doesn’t have any sense in the frame pf agnostic conception, though omission of path seems rather significant. Furthermore, the author doesn’t mention either code of moral rules or the Five Precepts. However, Batchelor slightly talks about ethical framework and proposes integrity.Despite the fact he speaks about impressive insights of integrity, the issues is still questionable as it has neither sufficient basis for ethic nor exact guidelines. (p. 48-50) The third part of the book â€Å"Fruition† is an exploration of consequences of dharma practice and explanation why dharma pract ice is called â€Å"passionate agnosticism†, Batchelor starts with accounting meditative path. The author explains the process of meditation stating that it consists of â€Å"radical, relentless questioning of every aspect of experience†.Nevertheless, such beginning makes readers profoundly perplexed, though for author â€Å"this perplexed questioning is the central path itself†. (p. 98) It means that the path aims at finding no goals and answers. Such conception of dharma practice seems bizarre and strange. Further, the author returns to meditation stating that its goal to justify belief system and to approve using the raft of the dharma practice. According to author, Buddha stresses the insight meditation, because it is able to lead to thorough knowledge of true nature. Thus Batchelor shows once more â€Å"the bearing of one's starting point on one's destination†.It is apparent that the author firstly starts from agnostic concept and then turns to exces sive mystery and doubt. However, Batchelor believes that if a person trust dharma practice, he/she has to follow the right View and consequently to find Right Knowledge and Right Liberation. (p. 108) The last section is devoted to the concepts of culture and imagination. The author deals with correlations between contemporary world and Buddhist teachings and religion. In other words, Batchelor tries to find implications of Buddhism in modern world.The author asserts that throughout the Buddhism history, â€Å"Dhamma has rejuvenated itself by continually altering its forms to respond to changing social and cultural conditions†. However, such statement may be considered the act of author’s imagination, his gift of talented thinker and his creative vision of things. (p. 107) Batchelor has given new and fresh approach to Buddhist teachings. Some critics find Batchelor’s vision of Buddhism too simplistic, though it is difficult to agree with them. Batchelor seems to present his original point of view, his understanding and his perception of Buddhism.He succeeded in making viewers interested exactly by simple explanation of core Buddhist issues. Nevertheless, the author has failed to explain sufficiently the role played by orthodoxy in stimulating dharma practice. What is more important to mention is that Batchelor believes that Buddhism applied to contemporary world may rise the need to create meaning that dharma practice is able to stimulate creativity in followers. According to author, dharma practice is a â€Å"new culture of awakening that addresses the specific anguish of the contemporary world†.(p. 109) It is necessary to conclude that Batchelor has created a new vision of Buddhism culture of awakening by stressing the integrity of Buddhist tradition and their responsibility to the present and the future. Despite the critique the book is rally worth reading, because it provides better understanding, advantages and disadvantages of not only of Buddhism religion, but also of agnostic concept. References Batchelor, Stephen. (1997). Buddhism Without Beliefs: A Contemporary Guide to Awakening. New York: Revierhead Books.

Erick Ericksons Stages of Development Essay

Erick Erickson was a German psychoanalyst. His interest in identity was developed from his personal experiences he had at school. One of the main elements of his stage theory, which are known as Erikson’s Stages of Development, is the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the sense of connection or belonging between a person and a particular social religion, political group, value, sexual orientation, and so on. He believed that our ego identity changed constantly due to new experiences or different interactions you have with people daily. To explain his ideas more clearly he organized life into eight stages that start from birth to death, According to the theory if you complete each stage you will have a healthy personality and feel a sense of satisfaction with yourself. If you fail to complete each or an individual stage it can result in having an unhealthy personality or a bad self-esteem. Each stage has two outcomes. The first four stages occur in childhood, the next four are at adulthood. Since adulthood includes too many years he divided them into adolescence, middle adulthood, and seniors or maturity. The stages of development are: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. hame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. identity diffusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair. The fifth stage of development, identity versus identity diffusion, occurs in adolescence, which includes teens from ages 12 to 18. In this stage, adolescents discover who they really are. They begin to know what their role in gender is, what their role in society is, discover their strengths, weaknesses, and make goals. In order to accomplish this stage adolescents need to explore different identities and commit to one or try to â€Å"fit in†. I think that it is very obvious when you see a teenager in this stage because one day you might see them with a group of friends that are athletic and dressed in jerseys, running shoes and so on, then later you might see them with a group of Goths who dress in black. Deciding whether you will attend college or just go to a vocational school, and simply finding what you want to become in the future, or study is also a part of your identity, even religion and political views are part of finding out who you really are. It is a complicated process but that is why you need to mature to make the correct choices. You need the encouragement and reinforcement of your loved ones to help you. If you fail to accomplish this stage you have what is called an identity crisis or also known as a diffusion which means you are not committed to an occupation, a religion, or your cultural identity. This is considered to be a normal problem in a teenager’s life. There is a solution to this problem because but you explore the different identities and decide which one appeals to your life style and you commit to it, you are ready to move on to the next stage and be an independent adult. Erickson’s fifth stage is influenced from James Marcia identity statuses, which are, identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achieved. Marcia’s ideas will help you better understand the importance of Erickson’s stages of development. Identity diffusion refers to when there is neither an identity crisis nor commitment. Identity achieved is when the person has gone through an exploration of different identities and made a commitment to one. Moratorium is the status in which the teen is currently in a crisis, while exploring a variety of identities and is ready to make choices but not ready to commit to one. Last is foreclosure which is when the adolescent is committed to an identity but they commit to an identity because it has been handed to them. These are not stages but rather a process to finding an identity. So how does this stage affect you personality? A teen who has answered the question â€Å"Who am I? †, and â€Å"Where will I go later in life†, learn fidelity. Fidelity is being loyal to a person, cause, or belief. Devotion is also learned through this stage. Devotion is defined as love, loyalty, or enthusiasm for a person, activity, or cause. You also become a more social person and do well with social relationships. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement when exploring will move on to the next stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Being independent is admitting you did wrong, being able to think for yourself, you also learn how to take care of yourself. We need independence in order to survive. A teen learns to be true to themselves. The other outcome to this is stage, not finding who you are, can make you confused about your role in society, and cause you to have a weak self-esteem. You can also be an insecure individual who feels lost in the world. A person that has identified diffusion may be described as disorganized, complicated, and somewhat unethical. Finding your identity is a process full of anxiety, but it is very normal for a teen to go through all this trouble. A lot of the choices you make at this point in life are influenced by your peers. This is the time of age when you get the most peer pressure, you begin to rebel against your parents, and begin to explore your role as a men or women. I believe the process might be different for a female compared to a male. So the purpose of finding an identity is to know who you are, what you want in life, and what you want to become, to be an independent individual with a strong sense of self, who knows how to develop social relationships. People will begin to look at you different when you develop an identity, and they can treat you more serious, and more like an adult.